Exterminating the "Bugs" in Your Writing

Author: Timothy O'Grady
Published on: December 16, 2001

Q. Should people who cannot grasp the difference between it's and its be allowed to vote?
A. No.
Q. What about people who say, "Between you and I"?
A. We favor execution without trial.
(Dave Barry, "Mr. Language Person's Tips," 28 Jan 1996)

(Note: If you wish both to exercise your right to vote and to avoid the firing squad, see Bugs 14 and 42 on "between you and me.")

In a more forgiving spirit, Raymond Carver once observed about writing that all we have are "the words, and they had better be the right ones, with the punctuation in the right places so that they can best say what they are meant to say." But between what we "mean to say" and what we are understood to say--between our ideas and our readers' reception of them--there are often more impediments than we realize. As in the weak transmission of a distant radio signal, a certain "static" in our writing can result from errors that, comparatively insignificant as they may be, disconcert an educated reader. Recognizing and eliminating these "bugs" will be an important step toward better writing and better thinking. So here are the answers to several FAQs and some guidelines on correcting what, in my experience, are the most common of these pesky bad habits.

Format:

1. Unless otherwise indicated, writing assignments submitted for a grade should be:
-- word-processed in 12-point type,
-- on 8-1/2 x 11" 20-weight white typing paper (no onionskin or erasable bond),
-- on one side of the page only,
-- double-spaced,
-- numbered (after the first page) in the upper right corner,
-- with one-inch margins on all four sides,
-- and with the author's name, the instructor's name, the course designation, and the
date of submission in upper left-hand corner of the first page.

-- Do not "justify" the right margin.
-- Do not use a cover sheet in place of the above format.
-- Multiple pages must be attached by a paperclip, not a staple.

2. The first line of every paragraph should be indented five spaces from the left.

3. In general numbers that can be expressed in one or two words should be spelled out verbally--e.g., six, not 6, eighty-seven, not 87. For larger numbers, use numerals--e.g., 4587.

4. Since they are forms of overly casual or overly specialized notation, avoid abbreviations or acronyms that have not been accepted as standard. Some examples of standard abbreviations are etc., TV, CD, VCR, Mr., Mrs., Ms., NATO, Inc., Corp., and Co. To be avoided are abbreviations like & and OK and acronyms like ASAP.

Titles:

5. Everything you write for publication or for this course (including the essays in exams) should begin with a title.

6. Quotation marks, underlining, and italics are not to be used in your title unless it contains the title of another work. Do not set your title in a font or type-size different from the rest of your text, do not separate it from the rest of the text by more than the usual double-spacing, and do not use boldface type.

7. In any title, the first letters of all words, except for articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.), and prepositions (of, in, about, with, etc.), are to be capitalized. The first letter of the title should be capitalized, even if it is an article, conjunction, or preposition. Capitalize first letters only--not entire words.

8. The title of any short work (short story, poem, one-act play, song, TV episode, chapter from a book, article from an anthology or a journal, etc.) is set off by quotation marks. The title of a long work (novel or other book, epic poem, full length [two-act or longer] play, TV series, video game, musical album or CD, movie, newspaper, journal, magazine, etc.) is italicized or underlined.

Style:

9. In good English prose, any kind of unnecessary repetition seems immature and even sloppy. There are times when you can repeat a word or idea for the sake of emphasis (Never, never, never will I visit that restaurant again!), but this should be done very sparingly. If anything is repeated in the same sentence, or even within the adjoining sentences, it begins to resemble the writing in an elementary school primer--e.g., I'm not going to the game because Shiela isn't going, and Hal's not going either.
Add more maturity to your writing by giving it more variety. Most repetition can be corrected by tightening up sentence structure, usually by combining and subordinating one element to another (Since neither Sheila nor Hal is going to the game, I will not either). But, when this is not possible or appropriate, substitute pronouns or synonyms for the repeated words.

10. Steer clear of redundancy (caused by inattentiveness or faulty logic). Always review your work carefully to make sure you are not unintentionally saying things twice instead of once. Examples:

Professor Carmichael wanted us to understand the previous events that led to
World War I.
Previous and that led to repeat the same idea. The solution is either to omit
previous or, after a little rearranging, to drop that led to (the events previous to
World War I).

She had great respect for her fellow classmates.
Fellow repeats -mates. If you read this sentence carefully, you notice that it says
"she" is her own classmate--which, of course, is absurd. The solution is either to
drop fellow or to change classmates to students.

The ambitions his father imposed on him made it impossible for Randy to establish
his own self-identity.
A term like self-identity is inherently redundant, since the idea of identity includes
the idea of "self." The solution, then, is to change self-identity to identity. In
addition, delete own, which is also redundant.

This data comes primarily from computer-generated models showing an increased
use of fossil-fuel consumption.
Consumption repeats use, so the corrected sentence would read "showing an
increased use of fossil fuel" or "showing increased fossil fuel consumption."

A common source of naturally occurring carbon dioxide is produced by the
exhalation of humans and other animals.
Since is produced by repeats source, the corrected sentence might read either "A
common source of naturally occurring carbon dioxide is the exhalation of humans
and other animals" or "Naturally occurring carbon dioxide is produced by the
exhalation of humans and other animals."

11. Redundancy can also lead to circular reasoning (also known as "tautology" or "begging the question"), as in the sentence, It pays off for companies not to downsize in the tough times because in the long run they will be better off. The clause, "because . . . they will be better off" simply repeats the idea that "it pays off" and does not tell us why or in what way it pays off, as it may have aimed to do. Such potential pitfalls require you to control the logic of your statements. Even though your reader may be able to guess what you are getting at, save him the trouble of mistrusting, stumbling over, or even laughing at the unintended humor of your statement and the careless thinking behind it. Make your writing say what you intend!

12. Wherever possible avoid using the passive voice (a form of the verb "to be" + past participle) because it is always unnecessarily wordy and frequently makes unclear who performed the designated action. For example, in the sentence, Bill was assisted in reviewing his knowledge of English grammar, the verb "was assisted" (the past tense form of "to be" + the past participle of "to assist") does not tell us who assisted Bill in his studies. A corrected version of essentially the same statement, providing more information but using no more words, would read, Joe assisted Bill in reviewing his knowledge of English grammar. As long as you know who committed the action and this information is relevant to your message, always use the active voice.

Diction:

13. Avoid using terms with nearly identical denotations, as in these examples: The panel of experts found her to be talented and gifted or The recent Balkan wars have again exhibited the human tendency to persecute and oppress. This is, of course, a form of wordiness and redundancy. In addition, such coordinated synonyms are often a sign that the writer is "padding" his writing, concerned less with meaning than the mere number of his words--or what he judges to be a ponderously agreeable "sound."

14. Although you may be comfortable using casual grammar and diction in speaking or writing to family and friends, avoid such informalities when writing a paper for a course or for publication. Be aware of the differences between "standard written English" (used in most scholarly and professional communication) and writing that permits the use of slang, colloquialisms, or deliberately irregular grammatical constructions--as in fiction, poetry, drama, correspondence, and essays reliant on an easygoing tone appropriate to the subject and audience. As a rule, for example, contractions (he's, she's, it's, let's, we're, you're, they're, isn't, aren't, weren't, he'll, she'll, they'll, don't, shouldn't, wouldn't, couldn't, I'm, I'll, I've, you've, we've, etc.) should not be used in writing for a course or publication because they are too casual. A natural writing style is not the same as that of informal conversation.

15. The use of "I feel," "I think," "I believe," "to me," etc. is not grammatically incorrect, but it is usually unnecessary. It also makes a statement sound more like an unfounded "opinion" than a well-considered and supported argumentative position. Do without such superfluous phrasing wherever you can, especially when it undermines the strength of an argument.

16. Overused or Frequently Misused Words and Phrases:

-- amongst is an archaic form of among; so, if you are not archaic, please use the
more modern word. A good rule is to avoid any word you would use only for
"fancy" effect in writing for an English class, such as the old hackneyed
stand-bys, thus and hence.
-- amount (like less below ) is correctly used if you are referring to an uncountable quantity,
as in amount of snow, amount of disorder, etc. On the other hand, number is used
when the quantity is countable, as in number of people, number of violations, etc.
-- aspect means "part" and should normally be followed by of. If this is not done, the
meaning may be left incomplete, as in He discussed various aspects with me. Your
reader will ask, "Aspects of what?" If you must use aspects, use it with of to explain
precisely what you are referring to (He discussed various aspects of the parking
problem with me). Also, do not confuse aspect with respect, as in I am in total
agreement with the president in this respect. Use respect, not aspect, to mean
"regard" or "connection."
-- awesome, originating with Howard Cossell and other sports announcers, is--like the once-
fashionable expletives, fantastic! and excellent!-- too much of a shopworn cliché? to be
more than a generalized and formulaic expression of approval. Instead, use a more
precise or original adjective.
-- can't help but is a triple negative (can't + help + but) that logically means the opposite
of what the speaker or writer normally means to say, as in the sentence, I cannot help but
enjoy the studying he requires of us. Although the intent of this sentence is I cannot
help enjoying the studying he requires of us (I enjoy the studying), its literal meaning is I
cannot help not enjoying--a precise contradiction of the sentence's intent. Correct
would be either I cannot help enjoying or I cannot but enjoy.
-- could care less (like can't help but) similarly turns the speaker's or writer's meaning
inside out. For example, in the sentence, I could care less whether Harry is impressed
with my work, the intent is to say, I do not care whether Harry is impressed with my
work. The literal meaning, however, is exactly (though unintentionally) the opposite.
Since I "could care less," I must already care quite a bit. It would be more accurate to
say, I could not care less whether Harry is impressed with my work.
-- different is not a comparative adjective, so it is not correct to say "different than," as in My
neighborhood is different than yours. Correct: My neighborhood is different from
yours.
-- downfall means "collapse," "destruction," or "ruination"--not "flaw,"" fault," or "mistake."
-- entity means simply a "unit" or a "whole thing" and is far too imprecise for most uses. Use a
more specific word to remind your reader that you are not referring only to a generic
"thing." It is far better to name the thing. See also individual and personnel, below.
-- enhance should not be used when less pretentious words, such as improve or increase are
preferable.
-- even (adverb) is usually an empty term, as in Before her conscience was aroused,
she would not even notice how the servants spoke to her. If the added meaning is as
minuscule as it is here, the word can be safely omitted.
--fun (used as an adjective) is an informal use of the noun and should be dropped in
favor of another word used more conventionally as an adjective. In the sentence,
We had a really fun time at the carnival, try substituting a word like enjoyable,
pleasant, amusing, entertaining, interesting, hilarious, unforgettable, or any of
a number of other words used more properly as adjectives.
-- hence (see amongst).
-- individual (to mean person) is usually too stilted and "official"-sounding--as though it were
part of a police protocol on avoiding all references to human beings of one gender or the
other (This individual was apprehended on the corner of 6th Street and Fifth
Avenue). And, although it is appropriate enough when referring to one member of a
group that is not necessary human (The lioness isolates a weak individual from the
wildebeest herd), it resembles the words entity and personnel in that it frequently
avoids, rather than increases, meaning. Instead of individual, use more natural-
sounding words, like man or woman or, better yet, terms that contain more
information about the person you are referring to (e.g., vagrant, musician, usher).
-- less (like amount above) is correctly used if you are referring to an uncountable quantity,
as in less snow, less disorder, etc. On the other hand, fewer is used when the quantity is
countable, as in fewer people, fewer violations, etc.
-- like is used in comparing two things expressed as nouns, as in He spoke like a dreamer.
On the other hand, as if or as though is used in comparisons calling for a conditional
clause: He spoke as if (or as though) he were dreaming. As (not like) is used to
introduce other types of clauses (He spoke as a dreamer does or He spoke as a
dreamer would) or a prepositional phrase (He spoke as in a dream).
-- lifestyle is too loose when only "life" is meant. See the similar word societal below.
-- on the contrary, though a perfectly serviceable term if used correctly, is often mistakenly
inserted in place of the more accurate in contrast or on the other hand. The meaning of
on the contrary is "I wish to show that what another has said or believes is wrong" and
should be used only to introduce such a refutation. When, however, you are simply
contrasting two persons, places, or things, use the more precise in contrast, on the other
hand, or another such transitional expression.
-- particular, as an adjective, is often redundant and unnecessary, as when a writer, in
discussing a labor issue, refers to these particular kitchen workers instead of,
simply, these kitchen workers. When the added meaning is as insignificant as this, omit
the word entirely.
-- personnel is another example of "officialese" (see entity and individual above). If by this
word you mean nothing more than "people," "workers," service members," "staff," or any
of a number of more accurate and less bloated-sounding words, make the change by all
means.
-- portray means "to paint" or "to depict"--not "to be," "to reveal," or "to create," except in the
sense that an actor creates a character or a painter creates a likeness (portrait).
Examples:

Wrong: Julian in Flannery O'Connor's "All That Rises Must Converge" portrays
a complex character blind to his own defects. (Within the reality of the
story, is Julian "painting" or "depicting" anything?--or is he simply being
himself?)
Better: Julian in Flannery O'Connor's "All That Rises Must Converge" is
a complex character blind to his own defects.

Wrong: The story portrays the attitude of a young man in a time of crisis.
(Can a story "portray" an abstract state, such as an "attitude"?)
Better: The narrator reveals the attitude of a young man in a time of
crisis.

Wrong: His mother loves Julian but portrays him as ungrateful.
(Has Julian's mother created him as a painter or an actor would--in
a sense that is primarily visual and aural?)
Better: His mother loves Julian but considers him ungrateful.

-- relate to is an overused phrase that is also frequently vague. Good alternatives, depending
on your meaning, would be "understand," "sympathize with," "link with," "correlate," or
"associate."
-- scenario is a word that grew trendy after it was beaten to death during televised briefings
on the Gulf War. If you are tempted to use it instead of "story," "plot," "plan,"
"eventuality," "strategy," or any of a dozen other preferable words, please do not.
-- situation is too unspecific when a better negative term, such as "problem," "predicament,"
"difficulty," or one of many other synonyms would be clearer and less formulaic.
-- state (verb) is adequate when used (usually with that) to introduce a quotation, as in
One critic states that O'Connor was "dealing with the dual anxieties of a
life-threatening illness and a guilt-inducing religion." When introducing
quotations, however, avoid the repetitious use of state(s). For the sake of
variety, use other verbs, such as say, tell us, remind us, observe, mention, point
out, comment, (dis)agree, notice, explain, remark, declare, or any of the many
other possibilities. See Bug #9.
-- societal, mainly a sociological term, should not be used when the more common
and generally applicable word social is a better fit.
-- such as is correctly used to introduce a phrase containing one or more examples, as in the
sentence, He made a study of several European languages, such as Italian, French,
and German. But please note the correct punctuation of this sentence; the comma
precedes the such as. And consider also whether, in the interest of conciseness, the
comma and the such as might not be dropped completely in favor of a simple colon. See
note to Bug #36.
-- suffrage means "the right to vote"--not "suffering."
--then after a conditional clause beginning with if, unless, or as long as, is not necessary (and
is a form of wordiness). Example: If he left the punishment to others, then at least he
would not have to face his inadequacies. Omit "then" for the sake of conciseness.
-- thus (See amongst).
-- utilize is unnecessary when only use is meant.
-- unique means "singular" or "one of a kind"--not simply "notable" or "unusual."
-- vice is frequently mistaken for versus. Use versus to show contrast, as in Our instructor
prefers word processing versus other kinds of writing.

17. "Deadwood" phrases to avoid because they are overused and seldom contribute additional meaning to a sentence:

-- in society
-- in our society
-- in our modern society
-- in modern society
-- in modern American society
-- in our American society
-- in our modern American society
-- in life
-- in time
-- in this day and age

Spelling:

18. Cannot is spelled as one word, not two.
Even though is spelled as two words, not one.
A lot is spelled as two words, not one. (Although there is nothing grammatically wrong with
the conversational "a lot," another term, such as "many," "a great deal," "quite a few," or
any of a hundred other, less informal words or phrases, is almost always better in
expository writing.)

19. The Latin Et cetera ("and so forth") is abbreviated etc., not ect.

20. In English we sometimes use Latin or Greek words in their original forms, especially the plural. Do not confuse these with the correct singular forms (or plural, as the case may be). Examples:

21. In America, judgment is spelled without the "e" of "judge."
Similarly, argument is spelled without the "e" of "argue."

22. Be sure that the final "d" (or "ed") is not mistakenly omitted from words such as the
following:

-- aged, as in Drayton accompanied his distinguished uncle Rick, aged seventy-
eight.
-- named, as in A little girl named Maureen was the first in line.
-- sized, as in We sell only small- to medium-sized dogs.
-- supposed, as in She was supposed to arrive an hour early.
-- prejudiced, as in His employees seem prejudiced in his favor.
-- used, as in I used to be a good swimmer.

23. Similarly, be sure that the final "s" (or "es") is not mistakenly omitted from singular verbs or plural nouns, such as the following:

-- Only Ted decides who will be accepted into the lodge.
-- There were eleven contestants entered in the race.

Pronouns:

24. You (and the imperative mood, with the understood subject you, as in the sentences, Just say "no" to drugs or Do not watch so much TV) should be used only when addressing a specific reader or readers. Using it instead of I, we, he, she, someone, everyone, or any other first- or third-person pronoun confuses your reader because of the shift (or ambiguity) in person. Again, although we frequently use the generic "you" in casual conversation (You never know when it is going to rain), it poses grammatical and stylistic problems in the written language. It can also sound overly informal, presumptuous, or even rude. Unless you are explaining how to do something (as in a recipe or other kind of process analysis), your expository writing should avoid addressing the reader directly.

25. One as a substitute for you usually seems too formal and stilted. The trick is to choose a pronoun or other expression that is both precise and grammatical but natural-sounding as well. All of your writing should be natural-sounding but correct, unless you are quoting dialogue or are deliberately trying to achieve some special effect where it is appropriate. Instead of "one" or "you" in this overly general sense, try using a more colorful or descriptive term (e.g., We who do not understand the mysteries of the atmosphere never know when it is going to rain); a first-person pronoun like I, me, we, or us; a third-person generic term like a person or people; or a third-person pronoun like he, she, him, her, they, them, someone, anyone, everyone, or no one. For the sake of variety, try not to use the same word repetitiously. See Bug #24.

26. That should usually precede a noun clause used as a direct object and beginning with a noun, as in I don't believe that Sally is our new president. Reason: Although in speech we can make our meaning clear by the rising and falling intonation of our voices, we cannot do so in writing. I do not believe Sally is our new president reads at first as if you "do not believe Sally." "That" is a signal that a noun clause ("that Sally is our new president") is the object of what you "do not believe." Only when all else is clear and unambiguous, as when the noun clause begins with a pronoun in the subjective case (I do not believe she is our new president), should you feel safe in dropping "that."
In the same way, that should be used to introduce a noun clause acting as a subject complement, as in My only hope is that disaster can be avoided. That signals to the reader that the complete idea contained in the clause (disaster can be avoided), and not merely the subject of the clause (disaster) is the complement of the subject in the main clause (hope).

27. When you are giving a reason or cause for something (The reason I am happy is . . .), the following complementary clause should begin with that, not with because or due to (The reason I am happy is that my grandmother won the lottery). On the other hand, when you have not already used the word reason, the clause should begin with because (I am happy because my grandmother won the lottery). Using "because" with "reason" is redundant, as well as being a mixed construction.

28. When writing of the consequences of an event, use the conjunction so (Buster did not proofread his paper carefully enough, so his grade was disappointing). But when expressing purpose or intention, use the subordinating conjunction so that, not merely so (I have taken special pains with the turkey this year so that there will not be any complaints).

29.
Incorrect: On the first day of class, every student should bring their book.
Incorrect: On the first day of class, every student should bring their books.
Correct but awkward: On the first day of class, every student should bring his or her book.
Correct but awkward: On the first day of class, every student should bring his/her book.
Correct: On the first day of class, every student should bring her book.
Correct: On the first day of class, every student should bring his book.

The best way to avoid the problem altogether is to change both the pronoun and
its antecedent to plural:

Correct: On the first day of class, all students should bring their books.

30. Use who, whose, or whom (not that) to introduce adjective clauses with human antecedents. Example: The man who (not that) stole my wallet is now in prison.

31. When in doubt about when to use who or whom, try substituting the similar-sounding word he (for who) or him (for whom) to determine whether the subjective case or the objective case is necessary. Examples:

The man (who or whom?) stole my wallet is now in prison.
Who is the correct choice because "he stole my wallet" correctly recognizes that a subject,
"he," is needed for the verb "stole." It would be incorrect to use the object-form ("him") as a
subject, as in "him stole my wallet."

Everyone is wondering (who or whom?) she is inviting to the party.
Whom must be chosen because "she is inviting him" correctly recognizes that an object is
needed for the verb "inviting" in the relative clause. It would be incorrect to use the subject-
form ("he") as an object, as in "she is inviting he."

Note: To test such substitutions, you must be able to distinguish the separate clauses in a
sentence.

32. In America (but not in Britain), commas and periods used to conclude a quotation go inside the quotation marks ("Swear that you'll keep this under your hat," my brother whispered). Other punctuation (colon, semicolon, question mark, exclamation point, or dash) goes outside the quotation marks, unless it is part of the quoted material ("A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush": this is advice we should not ignore). Some examples:

He asked me, "Who is the world's greatest undiscovered genius?"
Here the question mark goes inside the quotation marks because only the quoted
material is interrogative.

Did he ask you, "Who is the world's greatest undiscovered genius?"
In this case, only one question mark is used to cover two questions, both in the
introductory clause and in the quoted question.

Has anyone ever told you, "I am the world's greatest undiscovered genius"?
This sentence requires a question mark outside the quotation marks because only
the introductory clause (not the quoted statement) is interrogative.

Further note: Periods, question marks, commas, colons, semicolons, dashes, and
exclamation points should be used singly and not in combination.

33. A colon (:) is used to introduce a single person, place, or thing, a series of things, or a quotation to follow when the introductory portion of the sentence is an independent clause. Example: The boss is going to fire three supervisors: Jack Munger, Joe Berk, and Bill Moore. Example with a quotation: There is further evidence of Levertov's single-mindedness in her use of metaphor: "But I see the mountain turning, / turning away its face as the ship / takes us away". Do not confuse the colon with the semicolon (;).

Notes: When a quotation is introduced by a construction including or derived from the verb to say, to tell, to answer, to reply, to announce, to observe, to explain, to report, to proclaim, to remark, to declare, to mention, or one of similar meaning, a comma is used (Levertov displays her single-mindedness by saying, "But I see the mountain turning, / turning away its face").

When the quoted material can be worked into a sentence without a verb or verbal construction of the above type (Levertov clearly regrets "the mountain turning, / turning away its face") or is preceded by the noun-clause signal that (Levertov discloses her desolation by observing that "the mountain [is] turning, / turning away its face"), no punctuation (except for the quotation marks) is used to set off the quotation from what precedes it .

34. A semicolon (;) is used almost always to separate independent clauses in a sentence where a comma would not be enough, as in Wayne brought the hotdogs, mustard, relish, and pickles; and Garth brought the beer. Another comma after "pickles" might confuse the reader concerning what (or whom) Wayne brought (did he bring Garth?). Normally a comma shows where another independent clause begins; but, where there is other punctuation present (especially commas serving different functions), a semicolon makes your meaning clearer. Do not, however, use a semicolon where only a comma is needed.

35. A hyphen (-) is used to separate parts of words, while a dash (--) is used to separate whole words from each other, often in place of a colon or parentheses. A dash is two hyphens (--), not one; and there should be no space separating it from the words that precede or follow it. Example: He arrived just in time--one minute before the scheduled detonation--to prevent a horrible disaster.
Hyphens are used in many compound words, especially numbers (twenty-three), nouns or adjectives in which one noun is modifying another (ice-breaker, end-product, two-foot rope, million-dollar shortstop), and other compound adjectives placed before the nouns they modify (violence-filled movie, long-distance hauling, problem-solving approach, inner-city neighborhood, fuel-injected engine, bases-loaded single, small-town lawyer, well-developed paragraph, fast-moving train, off-the-wall idea, end-of-term party, middle-of-the-road policy, non-combatant activities, easy-going personality, user-friendly system).

36. While it is sometimes necessary to use ellipses (. . .) in the middle of a quotation to indicate that part of it has been omitted, it is not necessary to use them at the beginning or end of a quotation--providing the result is a complete sentence. Examples:

Franklin Roosevelt gave courage to the nation when he reminded us,
"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

Franklin Roosevelt softened the nation's anxieties when he warned us
against "the only thing . . . to fear . . . fear itself."

Franklin Roosevelt told us we had nothing to fear but "fear itself."

"Fear itself," according to Franklin Roosevelt, is "the only thing we have to
fear."

Franklin Roosevelt had the nation holding its breath when he
proclaimed, "The only thing we have to fear is . . . ."

(Note: Only when the result is not a complete sentence are ellipses
necessary at the end of a quotation.)

Further notes: While ellipses are usually three dots, four dots are used when the
omitted material includes a period ending a sentence (see last example above).
When using ellipses, allow a space after the word they follow, before the word they
precede, and between each dot.

37. All quoted material should be contained within double quotation marks unless the quotation itself contains quoted material, in which case the quote-within-the-quote is set off with single quotation marks. Example: Today in History class, Professor Elemeno declared, "When Patrick Henry cried, 'Give me liberty or give me death!' he was making a philosophical choice as much as a political one."

38. Use commas between every element in a series of three or more items, whether or not the last item is preceded by a conjunction (and, but, or, etc.). Example: This mammoth concert featured Pearl Jam, Toad the Wet Sprocket, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. Note that when it is understood that a comma separates every item in the series, it is also clear that "Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers" is the name of a single group. If we deleted the comma before "and Tom Petty," as some writers do before the conjunction, it would be unclear whether there were three or four groups named in this sentence. For that reason, it is always safest (and most considerate to your reader) to use the comma before the last item in a series.

39. Do not forget the apostrophe when using a noun in the possessive case, as in The playwright's repeated references to "honesty" suggest that an interesting research paper could be written on that topic. On the other hand, do not use an apostrophe for pronouns in the possessive case (yours, his, hers, its, theirs) or nouns that are not possessive but plural (boys, classes, books).

40. When referring to a word as a word, italicize it or set it off with quotation marks. Example: The author displays an irritating fondness for the word "enhance." The same rule applies to foreign words, such as versus.

41. Respect your sources and be sure that all of your quotations (words and punctuation) are absolutely accurate. When giving the title of any work, be sure it is correctly quoted, word-for word and down to the last detail of punctuation. Be especially careful to spell the author's and the characters' names correctly. .

42. When you are writing about a specific work, it is advisable to give the author's full name and the complete title of the work at the beginning of your paper--preferably in the first sentence. Example: The story, "All That Rises Must Converge," by Flannery O'Connor is a study in the Southern personality. (Note: It is necessary only to say "by Flannery O'Connor," not "written by Flannery O'Connor.") After this initial reference, refer to the author by last name only in order to avoid unnecessary repetition. This is equally appropriate with the names of critics whose ideas you are using: When first attributing the source, give the critic's full name; afterwards, the last name is enough.

43. When you are summarizing the plot of a narrative (story, novel, play, poem, movie, etc.), it is customary and convenient to keep your verbs in the present tense--even if the action is set in the past and the author uses the past tense in her narrative. For example, if the story tells us that Julian rose deliberately from his seat and you wish to refer to this gesture in your essay, summarize it by saying that Julian rises from his seat. Throughout your essay, be sure to keep the tense of your verbs consistent; avoid shifting from one tense to another.
However, even when you are writing mainly in the present tense, you must use the past tense when referring to events in the actual past (taking place outside the narrative) or the historical past (taking place within the narrative but prior to the incidents framed by the story). Examples: Actual Past: Julian's social alienation may reflect that of the author when she was of a similar age; Historical Past: Julian's social alienation may result from a childhood in which he was not given enough love.

44. The first letter of a quoted sentence, like any other sentence, is always capitalized. If this letter is not capitalized in the source text, you may capitalize it yourself, using brackets to indicate that you have made a change to the original. So, for instance, if the original reads, However reluctant I am to admit it, neither of them has a talent for housekeeping, your quotation might read like this: The narrator of the story tells us, "[N]either of them has a talent for housekeeping." On the other hand, if you are introducing the quotation with that or another grammatical signal that allows you to set up the quotation as a dependent clause, you may keep the original punctuation: The narrator of the story tells us that "neither of them has a talent for housekeeping."
The same rules apply when you are changing a capitalized letter to lower case or making some other change in the text in order to fit it grammatically into your sentence. Example: The narrator reveals her willingness to gossip, despite disclaimers such as "[h]owever reluctant I am to admit it." Or this: The narrator tells us she is "reluctant . . . to admit it," but obviously she is not.

45. Quotations are legitimate evidence for your argument, but your case will be more convincing if you take pains to quote concisely (not too lengthily) and only when necessary (not too frequently).
It is usually a good idea to summarize and paraphrase instead of over-quoting from the text or your research sources. Save the quotations for your most illustrative and persuasive points.